Unit4Learningefficiently-section2PartTwo:TeachingResourcesSection2:BackgroundinformationforUnit4Learningefficiently1.Whatislearning?learning,inpsychology,theprocessbywhicharelativelylastingchangeinpotentialbehavioroccursasaresultofpracticeorexperience.Learningisdistinguishedfrombehavioralchangesarisingfromsuchprocessesasmaturationandillness,butdoesapplytomotorskills,suchasdrivingacar,tointellectualskills,suchasreading,andtoattitudesandvalues,suchasprejudice.Thereisevidencethatneuroticsymptomsandpatternsofmentalillnessarealsolearnedbehavior.Learningoccursthroughoutlifeinanimals,andlearnedbehavioraccountsforalargeproportionofallbehaviorinthehigheranimals,especiallyinhumans.2.ModelsofLearningClassicalConditioningThefirstmodel,classicalconditioning,wasinitiallyidentifiedbyPavlovinthesalivationreflexofdogs.Salivationisaninnatereflex,orunconditionedresponse,tothepresentationoffood,anunconditionedstimulus.Pavlovshowedthatdogscouldbeconditionedtosalivatemerelytothesoundofabuzzer(aconditionedstimulus),afteritwassoundedanumberoftimesinconjunctionwiththepresentationoffood.Learningissaidtooccurbecausesalivationhasbeenconditionedtoanewstimulusthatdidnotelicititinitially.Thepairingoffoodwiththebuzzeractstoreinforcethebuzzerastheprominentstimulus.OperantConditioningAsecondtypeoflearning,knownasoperantconditioning,wasdevelopedaroundthesametimeasPavlov'stheorybyThorndike,andlaterexpandeduponbyB.F.Skinner.Here,learningtakesplaceastheindividualactsupontheenvironment.Whereasclassicalconditioninginvolvesinnatereflexes,operantconditioningrequiresvoluntarybehavior.Thorndikeshowedthatanintermittentrewardisessentialtoreinforcelearning,whilediscontinuingtheuseofreinforcementtendstoextinguishthelearnedbehavior.ThefamousSkinnerboxdemonstratedoperantconditioningbyplacingaratinaboxinwhichthepressingofasmallbarproducesfood.Skinnershowedthattherateventuallylearnstopressthebarregularlytoobtainfood.Besidesreinforcement,punishmentproducesavoidancebehavior,whichappearstoweakenlearningbutnotcurtailit.Inbothtypesofconditioning,stimulusgeneralizationoccurs;i.e.,theconditionedresponsemaybeelicitedbystimulisimilartotheoriginalconditionedstimulusbutnotusedintheoriginaltraining.Stimulusgeneralizationhasenormouspracticalimportance,becauseitallowsfortheapplicationoflearnedbehaviorsacrossdifferentcontexts.Behaviormodificationisatypeoftreatmentresultingfromthesestimulus/responsemodelsoflearning.Itoperatesundertheassumptionthatifbehaviorcanbelearned,itcanalsobeunlearned.CognitiveLearningAthirdapproachtolearningisknownascognitivelearning.WolfgangKohlershowedthataprotractedprocessoftrial-and-errormaybereplacedbyasuddenunderstandingthatgrasps用心爱心专心116号编辑theinterrelationshipsofaproblem.Thisprocess,calledinsight,ismoreakintopiecingtogetherapuzzlethanrespondingtoastimulus.EdwarTolman(1930)foundthatunrewardedratslearnedthelayoutofamaze,yetthiswasnotapparentuntiltheywerelaterrewardedwithfood.Tolmancalledthislatentlearning,andithasbeensuggestedthattheratsdevelopedcognitivemapsofthemazethattheywereabletoapplyimmediatelywhenarewardwasoffered.3.MultipleIntelligences■VerbalLinguisticintelligence(sensitivetothemeaningandorderofwordsasinapoet).Useactivitiesthatinvolvehearing,listening,impromptuorformalspeaking,tonguetwisters,humor,oralorsilentreading,documentation,creativewriting,spelling,journal,poetry.■Logical-mathemat...
