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Policy Sci (2007) 40:1–34DOI 10.1007/s11077-006-9022-7ORIGINAL ARTICLEThe allure of technology: How France and Californiapromoted electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce urban airpollutionDavid Calef · Robert GobleReceived: 15 May 2005 / Accepted: 19 July 2006 / Published online: 1 March 2007C Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007Abstract All advanced industrialized societies face the problem of air pollution producedby motor vehicles. In spite of striking improvements in internal combustion engine technol-ogy, air pollution in most urban areas is still measured at levels determined to be harmfulto human health. Throughout the 1990s and beyond, California and France both chose toimprove air quality by means of technological innovation, adopting legislation that promotedclean vehicles, prominently among them, electric vehicles (EVs). In California, policymakerschose a technology-forcing approach, setting ambitious goals (e.g., zero emission vehicles),establishing strict deadlines and issuing penalties for non-compliance. The policy process inCalifornia called for substantial participation from the public, the media, the academic com-munity and the interest groups affected by the regulation. The automobile and oil industriesbitterly contested the regulation, in public and in the courts. In contrast, in France the pol-icy process was non-adversarial, with minimal public participation and negligible debate inacademic circles. We argue that California’s stringent regulation spurred the development ofinnovative hybrid and fuel cell vehicles more effectively than the French approach. However,in spite of the differences, both California and France have been unable to put a substantialnumber of EVs on the road. Our comparison offer...