Cultural and non-cultural aspects of non-verbalCommunicationNon-verbal communication is often regarded as extremely culture bound. This as such largely correct, as the remainder of this chapter will point out. However, certain aspects of non-verbal communication are universal. Research into facial expression in particular seems to suggest a strong agreement across cultural boundaries. Shaver, Schwartz et al. (1987) discuss this aspect extensively. However, although the recognition of facial expression seems to be universal, the extend to which feelings and emotions are expressed through facial expression is culture bound. In other words, although people from different cultures are likely to agree on the emotions or feelings that a certain facial expression communicates, they are unlikely to attribute the same importance to this. For example Asian cultures are often characterized as less expressive in their facial expressions than for example Latin cultures. As much as the recognition and importance attribution of facial expressions differs from culture, so does the extend to which a certain reaction or interpretation of the facial expression is expected. The recognition and interpretation of facial expressions seems to be a function of cultural similarity, as suggested by Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1988). In other words, it may be easier for a Portuguese person to interpret facial expressions from a Spaniard than for a person coming from an Asian culture. The least accurate judgments are made by people from dissimilar cultures, whereas the most accurate judgments are made by people from similar cultures.However, apart from cultural influences, other influences affect non-verbal communication styles. Gender, for example seems to play an important role in the specifics of both interpretation as well as usage of non-verbal communication symbols and behavior. Lennon and Eisenberg (1987) suggest that women for example smile more frequently than men do. And that for example men speaking to women will use a different non-verbal communication style than when speaking to other men etc. They also suggest that there is a difference in the non-verbal behavior depending on age.Apart from culture and gender there is, of course, a personal dimension to non-verbal behavior. Personal idiosyncrasies play a vital role in the usage of non-verbal clues. However, these personal idiosyncrasies generally follow no real pattern and are specific to the individual. The last influence on non-verbal behaviour is situational factors, such as timing or size (Victor, 1992). Such factors may influence non-verbal behavior in many ways, for example actors on stage are often required to make ‘grand’ gestures, so that their gestures can be understood (and seen) also in the back rows of the theatre. If such grand gestures would be made during normal, everyday talk, it would look out of place.
