Chapter2SpeechSoundsIntroduction•Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.•Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.•Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.•Threemainareas:•ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.•AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.•PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.•Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.–Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’(Crystal,1997:162).–Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.–Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.2.1Howspeechsoundsaremade2.1.1SpeechorgansSpeechorgans(vocalorgans)(言语器官):thosepartofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeechPartofthebodythatareinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:thelungs(肺),thetrachea(气管),thethroat(咽喉),thenoseandthemouthThemouth:thetongue,theplate(腭)Thethroat:pharynx(upper)(咽),larynx(lower)(喉头)Thevocaltract(声道):thepharynx,mouth,andnoseThemouth:theoralcavity(口腔)Thenose:thenasalcavity(鼻腔)Vocalfolds(vocalcords,vocalbands):apairofstructurethatlieshorizontallywiththeirfrontendsjoinedtogetheratthebackoftheAdam’sapple.Thevocalfoldsareeither(a)apart,(b)closetogether,or(c)totallyclosed.Voiceless(清音):thevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpasseasily[p,s,t]Voiced(浊音):thevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachother[b,z,d]Glottalstop(喉塞音):thevocalfoldsaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthemPositionofthevocalfolds:voiceless发音器官的构造及其作用•世界上所有的声音都是物体振动产生的声波在介质中传递的结果,因此声音的产生离不开振动的动力、振动的源头和振动的共鸣腔。语音说到底也是一种声音,因而也离不开振动的动力、源头和共鸣腔,只不过语音是由人类的发音器官各部分协同动作所产生的,研究语音的产生,就必须首先了解发音器官的构造和功能。人类的发音器官可以分为三大部分:呼吸器官、喉头声带与声腔(口腔、鼻腔与咽腔),我们详细介绍各部分的构造和功能。发音器官的构造及其作用1呼吸器官呼吸器官主要包括肺、气管和支气管。肺部的收缩和扩张可以产生呼气和吸气的气流变化,这种气流变化不仅为人类的生存提供氧气和二氧化碳的交换,而且为语音的发出提供了振动的动力。世界上多数语言的语音利用呼气作为动力,非洲有些语言还利用吸气发音。发音器官的构造及其作用2喉头和声带喉头由软骨构成,呈圆筒状,上接咽腔,下接气管,喉头的外表就是喉结。喉头软骨构成的"圆筒"中有一对声带,声带是两片富有弹性的唇性肌肉,其前后两端都粘附在软骨上。两片声带之间的空隙叫声门,声门又可以分为音门和气门两部分。由于肌肉的松弛紧缩和软骨的开合回转,声带可以放松或拉紧,声门可以打开和关闭,从而产生不同的气流状态。声带的两小片肌肉可以在气流的冲击下振动,这种振动产生了语音中的浊音。所以声带的主要作用是振动的源头之一--浊音的音源。发音器官的构造及其作用3声腔声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。口腔可分为上下两个部分,上面部分包括上唇、上齿、齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分,硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚...